For episode 9 see here
The Theory of the Universal Community
X. Seneca and the Fathers of the Church
A. Seneca wrote in the early days of Empire
B. Reflects despondence of a Rome in social and political decline
C. Good man can do nothing through political office and such offices
have little to offer good men
D. Duty of the good man is to offer moral or religious virtue, to become
the teacher of mankind
1. offered strength and consolation in this world
2. turned toward contemplation of spiritual life
3. beginning of split between religious life and politics
E. Religious institutions begin to form along side state
G. State no longer seen as highest agency of moral perfection
H. Seneca saw innocent Golden Age, a state of nature
I. For him, government and law are an ethical second-best and as a cure for
the sinfulness of civilized man
J. Rise of Christian Church as distinct institution to govern spiritual
concerns of men was revolutionary
1. Religious doctrine of salvation was neither philosophy nor political theory
2. Philosophy of early Christians not unlike Stoics
i. law of nature
ii. providential government of the world
iii. obligation of law and government to serve justice
iv. equality of all men before God
3. Added obligation to respect constituted authority, as derived from God,
not the people
i. respect due institution, not merely the person of the ruler
ii. But unlike Roman law, it was necessary to suffer bad ruler as he came
from God and not the people
iii. Yet obligation to God higher than obligation to the state
4. Christianity split what for pagans was a unity -- that the duties of
morality and religion met in the state
5. Led to problems of church and state (which made possible liberty)
6. Church and State were to be mutually interdependent with the Church
the superior partner
K. Ambrose, Augustine and Gregory
1. Dealt not with systemic philosophy of Church and State but with
immediate pressing problems
2. Ambrose -- 4th Century AD
i. strong statement for autonomy of the Church in spiritual matters
ii. taught and converted Augustine
3. Augustine -- 5th Century AD
i. transmitted ancient thought to Middle Ages
ii. Saw human history as dominated by contest between earthly city
(lower human nature) and the City of God
iii. through earthly life, however, the two cities are mingled
iv. true commonwealth must be Christian as only such a state is just
4. Gregory -- pope, father of the medieval papacy
i. obedience to ruler extended to passive obedience to wicked ruler
ii. ruler had power even to do what was unlawful, providing he was
willing to risk damnation
5. The Two Swords
i. Church held spiritual interests and eternal salvation which was the
province of teaching by clergy
ii. State held temporal authority, maintenance of peace, order and
justice
iii. between the two a spirit of mutual helpfulness ought to prevail
6. Universal Christian society was the Empire and the Universal Church,
7. Split laid the ground for the right of (spiritual) freedom
Next week: The Folk and Its Law
Theory of the City-State
VI. Aristotle: Political Actualities
A. Lays groundwork for the study of politics separate from the study of ethics
B. Looks at the ethical basis, arrangement of offices, social classes within state,
as well as recognizing the differences between the legal constitution and
the constitution in practice
C. Analysis based upon an understanding of the political and economic
constitution of the state
1. Democracies differ according to inclusiveness and economic structure
of the state
2. Oligarchies differ on eligibility and distribution of property
D. Three branches of government: deliberative, administrative and judiciary
E. Combining best of both types is the polity or constitutional government*
1. Foundation of large middle class which is the most stable as not too
rich or too poor
2. Balancing of quality (aristocracy) and quantity (democracy)
F. Defines state as community between contractual relations and paternal rule
G. State originates from bare needs of life but continues for the sake of the good
life -- which is the first truly civilized form.
H. The "nature"of a thing revealed after growth has taken place; nature redefined
as convention. Through the growth of community comes the state.
I. The state is natural because it contains the possibility of a fully civilized life
but conditions must be right, thus an arena for the statesman to act.
J. Fundamental constituents of nature: form, matter and movement
1. Statesman must be descriptive and empirical to ascertain the possibilities
of the actual
2. Also must consider the ideal to give form to the possibilities
*Note: Aristotle divides governments into six types, three ruled by the best one, few or many and their negative forms were rule is in the hand of those not guided by reason but by self-interest.
Next week: The Twilight of the City-State
Theory of the City-State
V. Aristotle: Political Ideals
A. Pupil of Plato at the Academy
B. Politics is probably not a unified work but a collection of essays
C. The Politics can be divided into two parts
1. Books II, III, VII and VIII on an ideal state
2. Books IV, V and VI offer final thoughts on political science
3. Book I considers nature-convention problem
D. Prefers to stick more to common experience rather than logical departures
from it.
E. His ideal state is the second best of Plato, never accepted Plato's ideal
1. Best was constitutional
2. Based on some degree of moral equality of men [citizens]
3. Rejects the model of the father's rule over children
F. Aristotle sees law as "reason unaffected by desire"
1. Law gives authority of the magistrate a "moral quality" to which all are
obliged
G. Under constitutional rule, the public, or general, interest determines law
rather than factions or tyrannous rule by one or some
1. Government carried out by general regulations not arbitrary decrees
2. Government of willing subjects not merely due to force
H. Saw experience of ages as embedded in law, or capable of being so,
contrary to Plato
1. Saw possible supremacy of collective wisdom over single wise lawgiver
2. Wisdom that should guide the state goes from being the exclusive domain
of the philosopher to being the result of social custom embodied in law.
I. Aristotle's ideal state based on Plato's Laws.
J. Wisdom as embodied in custom must be the guiding principle in taking
advantage of actual conditions to gradually reform them. (For Plato, the
ideal often in radical opposition to facts.)
K. The state is the association of men to realize the good in the form of the best
moral life
L. Looks to build up the best state from experience and from not a preexisting
ideal
1. Saw some merit in the usual claiments for power -- democrats and
aristocrats
2. Reasoned that since none had absolute claim, law (good law) must be
supreme
M. Aristotle saw forces working on and through real agents and not from Plato's
Ideal Forms. [Perhaps two sides of the dialectic.]
Next week: Aristotle: Political Actualities
