Notes on "A History of Political Theory" -- Episode 14

For episode 13 see here


The Theory of the Universal Community

XIV: Three Challenges to Christian Society

  A. Philip the Fair and Boniface VIII, France vs the papacy (1296-1303)
       1. Theory of papal supremacy brought to completion 
       2. Church saw spiritual realm including temporal means to spiritual ends
       3. Royalists tried to limit spiritual to questions of conscience making it
           dependent on secular arm for coercive power
       4. Papists saw pope supreme in the Church with both swords belonging
           to it
       5. Pope was successor to St. Peter, ruled by divine right
       6. Royalists legal formula was that the king has same power in the kingdom
           as emperor has in empire
       7. Saw king as independent of both emperor and pope 
       8. Confrontation between king and pope produced conception of the
           kingdom as political power not dependent on tradition of the Empire 
       9. Brings back Aristotle's idea of the state not requiring sanctification of
           religion to be legitimate
       10. Anti-papists argued along two lines
           i. spiritual power limited to only proper moral and religious exercise
           ii. objection to tyrannous rule and call for some form of representation
               and consent
  B. Marsilio of Padua and William of Occam (1323-1347)
       1. Temporal power established independently of spiritual 
       2. Considered question of absolute monarchy vs constitutional monarchy
       3. Problem shifted to relation between sovereign and corporate body be
           ruled
       4. Marsilio: Averroist Aristotelism
           i. separates reason from faith, both are true and yet may contradict 
           ii. reasserts human society as self-sufficient in the fullest sense
           iii. good life is good in this life and good in next, reason is truth of
                good life here with revelation as truth for the next life
           iv. consequences of religion in this life limited to spiritual teaching.
           v. clergy are just one class in the state among others and as such
               are subject to state regulation
           vi. made distinction between divine law, from God, for attaining best
                of the next life from corporate power, for attaining the best in this
                life
           vii. only human law carries earthly penalties
           viii. anticipated Luther on the priesthood of all Christians, denial of
                  hierarchy in the Church especially the pope, view of religion as
                  essentially an inner experience, and denial of cannon law
           ix. as practical, concedes a General Council to oversee the Church as
                 representative of the corporate body
       5. William: The Freedom of the Church
           i. advocated for excommunicated minority against papal sovereignty,
               rights of subjects against ruler and rights of minorities
           ii. saw theology as mainly having to do with supernatural things,
               while reason was the realm pf philosophy
           iii. continued tradition of Duns Scotus against St. Thomas 
           iv. argued for representative check on papal power 
           v. derived authority of the emperor from election by the College of
                Electors standing in the place of the people
  C. The Concilian Theory of Church Government 
       1. John Wycliffe and Jan Hus argued that the whole church (all Christians)
           was the recipient of divine law and spiritual power
       2. As part of the dependency on secular support, made the case for 
           greater dignity of royal power over spiritual power in this life
       3. Conciliarists provided first great debate on constitutionalism against
           absolutism
           i. spiritual power is vested in the church as a corporate body
           ii. clergy, including the pope, merely ministers or organs by which the
               corporate body acts
           iii. looked to custom, not will, of the people as source of authority
           iv. force of law, in general way, comes from consent
           v. the Council was to share authority with the pope but pope was allowed 
               to typically continue monarchical rule unless overstepped bounds
       4. With the failure of the conciliar movement, pope became the first of the 
            absolute monarchs and the theory of papal absolutism became the 
            archetype for monarchical absolutism

Connecting constitutional movements of the 17th and 18th centuries to the conciliar movement of the Middle Ages "was the conviction that lawful authority is a moral force while despotism is not, and that society itself embodies a force of moral criticism to which even legally constituted power is rightly subject. (327-28)

Next week:  Machiavelli
  

Interlude: Unconscious Artificial Intelligence?

I’ve been considering the nature and role of consciousness for some years. Along the way, I’ve wondered about Artificial Intelligence (AI) and whether at some point it might become conscious. My conclusion has been that however complex and “intelligent” an AI would become, that would not produce consciousness. Consciousness requires life and – as at must include at least some degree of self-awareness – it could only be the property of an individual organism with some organized “self.” Machine intelligence might be constructed – coded – to simulate self (and thus pass the Turing Test) but this would nevertheless not be an awareness of self. (Even now, AIs and robots can be quite “clever.” A recent visitor to a Tokyo hotel asked the robot concierge how much it cost. It replied “I’m priceless.” Cute.) However elaborate the mind – in the case of the most advanced AI’s built with neural networks this might be quite sophisticated, even to the point that the human programmers might not be able to replicate its internal processes – consciousness is an additional property beyond mere complexity and processing power. In the first season of HBO’s Westworld, android “hosts” become conscious through the repeated experience of pain and loss. But of course, to feel such emotions, one must first experience them as such. Quantity (of coded processing operations) does not equal qualia. Qualitative experiences are only possible if one is already conscious.

But human beings not only possess a conscious mind but also an unconscious one. Most brain processes – even those that at some point enter consciousness – originate and work away unconsciously. We all have the experience of dreaming and also of doing things quite competently, without any awareness of having done them. (We may, for example, drive a familiar daily route and get to our destination without remembering details of the ride.) The brain processing of the unconscious mind may indeed be replicated by advanced machine intelligence. As AI becomes more complex, given the power of electronic circuits and the complexity of coded learning via neutral networks, the processing capacity of machine intelligence may well exceed human despite not becoming conscious. They would also, perhaps, exceed human ability to understand what they are “thinking” (or even “dreaming”). It was Stephen Hawking who most famously warned of the dangers of such AIs. He warned that we need to be attentive to their management.

So, though AIs may never become conscious or self-aware, they may nevertheless run autonomously along routes enabled by the algorithms coded into their machine DNA and come to “conclusions” we humans might find inconvenient or dangerous. (They might for example decide that human activity is injurious to the planet – which it seems it is – and seek to correct the disease.) Limits should be included in the most basic AI coding and algorithms. Isaac Asimov thought of this some time ago. His Three Laws of Robotics make a good start:

First Law – A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.

Second Law – A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law.

Third Law – A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Laws.

To these he later added a zeroith law: A robot may not harm humanity, or, by inaction, allow humanity to come to harm.

This last might be might turn out to be a doubled-edged sword.

Next week I will return to  Notes on "A History of Political Theory"

Notes on "A History of Political Theory" -- Episode 13

For episode 12 see here


The Theory of the Universal Community


XIII.  Universitas Hominum

  A. Rebirth of scholarly activity in 13th Century

       1. rediscovery of Aristotle

       2. concentration on theology and metaphysics

  B. John of Salisbury

       1. saw kings bound by law as everyone was

       2. carried on argument of Cicero for res publica

  C. Saint Thomas Aquinas

       1. used Aristotle as new support for Christian philosophy

       2. tried to synthesize faith and reason

       3. saw each as acting to achieve own form of perfection within a

           hierarchy of degrees of perfection

       4. saw Aristotelian society of mutual exchange for achieving the good life

       5. ruler derives power from his part, under God, in the community of

           directing every class towards a happy and virtuous life

       6. offered no clear definition of lawful authority or of its derivation (or the

           kings relation to law)

       7. law was one aspect of the cosmic system by which God rules the world

           i. all different manifestations of the same principles

           ii. Eternal Law -- the eternal plan of all creation, not knowable

           iii. Natural Law -- reflection of Eternal Law in created things

           iv. Divine Law -- revelation from God in the Scriptures

           v. Human Law -- ius gentium and ius civile, applies to humankind the

           divine principle

       8. Human Law is Natural Law made to cover man


"For both men [Aquinas and Locke], the ruler is as definitely bound by reason and justice as his subjects, and his power over the positive law arises from the need of keeping it in agreement with Natural Law. Enactment is less an act of will than an adjustment to times and circumstances. (259)


 D. Dante sought to show the Emperor's authority derived directly from God but

      not dependent on God.

 E. For all three thinkers, human race forms a single community whose existence

     implies a single head.

 F. Out of line with Aristotle's presumption that the state is an outgrowth of the

     natural evolution of society, justified by the moral values it sustains without

     religious sanction.


Next week: Three Challenges to Christian Society    


Notes on "A History of Political Theory" -- Episode 12

For episode 11 see here

The Theory of the Universal Community

XII. The Investiture Controversy*

  A. Thinking on political and social ideas preserved from antiquity reemerged

       in the 11th Century

  B. Main issue was contest between Emperor and Pope, a jurisdictional dispute 

       between two principles of authority for a single Christian society 

  C. The Church's claim based on the idea of Christian society as the foundation

       underpinning a Christian state

       1. Church strengthened by Pseudo Isidorian Decretals of the 9th Century

           concerning centralization and papal authority

       2. greater seriousness and militancy of churchmen in pursuit of Christian

           ideal connected with Cluniac Reforms of the 10th Century

       3. John of Salisbury placed both swords in the hands of the Church

   D. The Emperor saw himself as subject only to God in temporal affairs

       (forerunner of Divine Right)

       1. His office was his property and heritarty

       2. The two swords were independent of each other

*Note:  From Wikipedia -- "The Investiture Controversy or Investiture Contest was a conflict between Church and state in medieval Europe over the ability to install high church officials through investiture. By undercutting imperial power, the controversy led to nearly 50 years of civil war in Germany..... It began as a power struggle between Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Henry IV in 1076."

Next week: Universitas Hominum   

Notes on "A History of Political Theory" -- Episode 11

For episode 10 see here

 The Theory of the Universal Community

 XI. The Folk and Its Law
    A. Between 6th and 9th Centuries, Roman Empire (and antiquity) broke.
       Europe came under Germanic invaders
    B. Repeated invasions in 10th and 11th Centuries, little philosophical or 
       theoretical activity
    C. Authority of Fathers Cicero unbounded
    D. Early Middle Ages political thought
       1. Germanics saw Law as belonging to the folk as if it were an
          attribute of the group
       2. there was great diversity of laws
       3. Law seen to be externally valid and to some degree sacred, pervaded
          all of life
       4. Law seen to be discovered not made

"The belief that law belongs to the people and is applied or modified with their
  approval and consent was therefore universally accepted.... Historically the
  apparatus was later than the idea that the people was a corporate body which
  expressed its corporate mind through its magistrates and natural leaders."(206) 

       5. King bound to follow Law as it could be ascertained by consulting
          immemorial practice
       6. each enjoyed protection of Law according to rank and order as his fathers
          had
       7. limits on the king were therefore vague
    F. Three sorts of claims to royal power were combined
       1. Kings inherited throne
       2. Election by the people
       3. Ruled by grace of God
       4. first two became more distinguished as constitutional practices became
          regularized and clearly defined
       5. Monarchy and Papacy became elective (in the Empire)
    G. Feudal relations and ideas
       1. large political and economic units not practical
       2. agricultural practices and conditions made the village community and
          farm lands almost self-sufficient
       3. System of land tenure and vested rights
          i. land was wealth
          ii. obligations were contractual, mutually binding
       4. King was titular representative of the public interest, his rule stood on
          res publica as a continuation of the commonwealth tradition with king
          as chief magistrate
       5. King was not absolute, acted through his court or council
       6. John of Salisbury recognized the ancient tradition

Next week: The Investiture Controversy  

Notes on "A History of Political Theory" -- Episode 10

For episode 9 see here

 The Theory of the Universal Community

 X. Seneca and the Fathers of the Church
    A. Seneca wrote in the early days of Empire
    B. Reflects despondence of a Rome in social and political decline 
    C. Good man can do nothing through political office and such offices
         have little to offer good men
     D. Duty of the good man is to offer moral or religious virtue, to become
          the teacher of mankind
       1. offered strength and consolation in this world
       2. turned toward contemplation of spiritual life
       3. beginning of split between religious life and politics
     E. Religious institutions begin to form along side state
     G. State no longer seen as highest agency of moral perfection 
     H. Seneca saw innocent Golden Age, a state of nature
      I.  For him, government and law are an ethical second-best and as a cure for
           the sinfulness of civilized man
      J. Rise of Christian Church as distinct institution to govern spiritual
          concerns of men was revolutionary
       1. Religious doctrine of salvation was neither philosophy nor political theory
       2. Philosophy of early Christians not unlike Stoics  
          i. law of nature
          ii. providential government of the world
          iii. obligation of law and government to serve justice 
          iv. equality of all men before God
       3. Added obligation to respect constituted authority, as derived from God,
          not the people
          i. respect due institution, not merely the person of the ruler
          ii. But unlike Roman law, it was necessary to suffer bad ruler as he came
              from God and not the people
          iii. Yet obligation to God higher than obligation to the state
       4. Christianity split what for pagans was a unity -- that the duties of
          morality and religion met in the state
       5. Led to problems of church and state (which made possible liberty)
       6. Church and State were to be mutually interdependent with the Church
          the superior partner
     K. Ambrose, Augustine and Gregory
       1. Dealt not with systemic philosophy of Church and State but with
         immediate pressing problems
       2. Ambrose -- 4th Century AD
          i. strong statement for autonomy of the Church in spiritual matters
          ii. taught and converted Augustine
       3. Augustine -- 5th Century AD
          i. transmitted ancient thought to Middle Ages
          ii. Saw human history as dominated by contest between earthly city
              (lower human nature) and the City of God
          iii. through earthly life, however, the two cities are mingled
          iv. true commonwealth must be Christian as only such a state is just
       4. Gregory -- pope, father of the medieval papacy
          i. obedience to ruler extended to passive obedience to wicked ruler
          ii. ruler had power even to do what was unlawful, providing he was
             willing to risk damnation
       5. The Two Swords
          i. Church held spiritual interests and eternal salvation which was the
           province of teaching by clergy
          ii. State held temporal authority, maintenance of peace, order and
           justice
          iii. between the two a spirit of mutual helpfulness ought to prevail
       6. Universal Christian society was the Empire and the Universal Church,
       7. Split laid the ground for the right of (spiritual) freedom
 

Next week: The Folk and Its Law  

Notes on "A History of Political Theory" -- Episode 9

For episode 8 see here

 The Theory of the Universal Community

 IX. Cicero and the Roman Lawyers

  A. Known [Western] world soon to be under single political rule like
       Mediterranean
       1. Melting pot became single community
       2. No politically self-conscious nations 
       3. Stoic ideas of world-state, natural justice and universal citizenship
           became common property of all educated men
       4. World ruled by God, father to human who were therefore brothers
  B. Development of these ideas followed two lines
       1. embedding of "natural law"into Roman jurisprudence
       2. development of religious implications of law and government rooted in
           plan of Divine Providence
       3. little political theory done systematically
  C. Cicero not original but very widely read
       1. Wrote to bring Rome back to Republican virtues but failed
       2. Most important contribution was to give statement of Stoic doctrine of
           natural law universally known in the West through the 19th century
       3. Natural law arose from fact of God's providential government of the
           world and from rational and social nature of human being which makes
            them akin to God
           i. In light of this law, all men are equal

"Indeed Cicero goes so far as to suggest that it is nothing but error, bad habits
  and false opinions that prevents men from being in fact equal." (164)

           ii. Equality is moral requirement rather than a fact, contrary to Aristotle
       4. State is a moral community, the res publica, or affair of the people 
       5. Membership in the state is common possession of all its citizens, as is its
           advantages of mutual aid and just government.  Thus:
           i. its authority arises from the collective power of the people
           ii. political power when rightfully and lawfully exercised is corporate power
              of the people (and only to be exercised by law)
           iii. state itself and the law is subject to God, in effect to moral or
               natural law
   D. Roman lawyers
       1. Classical period of development of Roman jurisprudence , repetition and
           elaboration of Cicero in the 2nd and 3rd Centuries AD
       2. Speaking in terms of right and justifiable powers (legalistic argumentation)
           remained a generally accepted method of political theorizing
       3. Positive Law was seen as approximation to perfect justice and
           definition of the right, lawyers seen as "priests of justice"
       4. Emperor's will has force of law because people transfer to him their
           power



Next week: Seneca and the Fathers of the Church